ING WITH
FILE INFORMATION
FILENAME(S): ING WITH
FILE TYPE(S): PRG
FILE SIZE: 11.6K
FIRST SEEN: 2025-11-30 21:26:23
APPEARS ON: 1 disk(s)
FILE HASH
aa2876e165b48a3120040b9e89b1b26667d67cba3eb9a275ec29647cfa380b2c
FOUND ON DISKS (1 DISKS)
| DISK TITLE | FILENAME | FILE TYPE | COLLECTION | TRACK | SECTOR | ACTIONS |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| P IME 1 4 | ING WITH | PRG | DuncanTwain | 10 | 4 | DOWNLOAD FILE |
FILE CONTENT & ANALYSIS
00000000: 00 10 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |.... | 00000010: D0 52 4F 47 52 41 4D 4D 49 4E 47 0D 20 20 20 20 |.ROGRAMMING. | 00000020: 20 20 20 57 49 54 48 20 CD 41 43 48 49 4E 45 20 | WITH .ACHINE | 00000030: CC 41 4E 47 55 41 47 45 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 20 20 20 |.ANGUAGE..... | 00000040: 28 43 29 31 39 38 37 20 42 59 20 D2 4F 42 45 52 |(C)1987 BY .OBER| 00000050: 54 20 D2 4F 43 4B 45 46 45 4C 4C 45 52 0D 20 20 |T .OCKEFELLER. | 00000060: 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 4E | AN| 00000070: 44 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 D5 50 D4 49 |D. .P.I| 00000080: 4D 45 20 CD 41 47 41 5A 49 4E 45 0D 20 20 20 20 |ME .AGAZINE. | 00000090: 20 20 20 20 C1 4C 4C 20 D2 49 47 48 54 53 20 D2 | .LL .IGHTS .| 000000A0: 45 53 45 52 56 45 44 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |ESERVED.. | 000000B0: 20 20 20 20 20 D0 55 42 4C 49 53 48 45 44 20 42 | .UBLISHED B| 000000C0: 59 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 D6 49 4B 49 4E 47 20 D4 |Y. .IKING .| 000000D0: 45 43 48 4E 4F 4C 4F 47 49 45 53 2C 20 C9 4E 43 |ECHNOLOGIES, .NC| 000000E0: 2E 00 20 20 20 20 20 C2 45 47 49 4E 4E 49 4E 47 |.. .EGINNING| 000000F0: 20 54 48 49 53 20 4D 4F 4E 54 48 2C 20 41 20 4E | THIS MONTH, A N| 00000100: 45 57 20 43 4F 4C 55 4D 4E 20 44 45 56 4F 54 45 |EW COLUMN DEVOTE| 00000110: 44 20 54 4F 20 4D 41 43 48 49 4E 45 2D 4C 41 4E |D TO MACHINE-LAN| 00000120: 47 55 41 47 45 20 50 52 4F 47 52 41 4D 4D 49 4E |GUAGE PROGRAMMIN| 00000130: 47 20 4F 4E 20 54 48 45 20 C3 36 34 20 4D 41 4B |G ON THE .64 MAK| 00000140: 45 53 20 49 54 53 20 44 45 42 55 54 20 49 4E 20 |ES ITS DEBUT IN | 00000150: D5 50 D4 49 4D 45 2E 20 20 D4 48 45 20 54 4F 50 |.P.IME. .HE TOP| 00000160: 49 43 53 20 41 4E 44 20 50 41 43 45 20 4F 46 20 |ICS AND PACE OF | 00000170: 54 48 45 20 43 4F 4C 55 4D 4E 20 57 49 4C 4C 20 |THE COLUMN WILL | 00000180: 42 45 20 44 45 54 45 52 4D 49 4E 45 44 20 42 59 |BE DETERMINED BY| 00000190: 20 59 4F 55 2C 20 4F 55 52 20 52 45 41 44 45 52 | YOU, OUR READER| 000001A0: 53 2E 20 20 C9 46 20 59 4F 55 20 57 41 4E 54 20 |S. .F YOU WANT | 000001B0: 54 4F 20 53 45 45 20 41 20 43 45 52 54 41 49 4E |TO SEE A CERTAIN| 000001C0: 20 53 55 42 4A 45 43 54 20 43 4F 56 45 52 45 44 | SUBJECT COVERED| 000001D0: 2C 20 4A 55 53 54 20 44 52 4F 50 20 55 53 20 41 |, JUST DROP US A| 000001E0: 20 4C 49 4E 45 20 41 4E 44 20 57 45 27 4C 4C 20 | LINE AND WE'LL | 000001F0: 44 4F 20 4F 55 52 20 42 45 53 54 20 54 4F 20 49 |DO OUR BEST TO I| 00000200: 4E 43 4C 55 44 45 20 49 54 20 49 4E 20 46 55 54 |NCLUDE IT IN FUT| 00000210: 55 52 45 20 43 4F 4C 55 4D 4E 53 2E 0D 0D 20 20 |URE COLUMNS... | 00000220: 20 20 20 D7 45 20 50 4C 41 4E 20 54 4F 20 42 45 | .E PLAN TO BE| 00000230: 47 49 4E 20 57 49 54 48 20 49 4E 54 52 4F 44 55 |GIN WITH INTRODU| 00000240: 43 54 4F 52 59 20 54 4F 50 49 43 53 20 53 55 43 |CTORY TOPICS SUC| 00000250: 48 20 41 53 20 42 41 53 49 43 20 43 4F 4D 50 55 |H AS BASIC COMPU| 00000260: 54 45 52 20 54 45 52 4D 49 4E 4F 4C 4F 47 59 2C |TER TERMINOLOGY,| 00000270: 20 54 48 45 20 36 35 30 32 20 49 4E 53 54 52 55 | THE 6502 INSTRU| 00000280: 43 54 49 4F 4E 20 53 45 54 2C 20 41 44 44 52 45 |CTION SET, ADDRE| 00000290: 53 53 49 4E 47 20 4D 4F 44 45 53 2C 20 54 48 45 |SSING MODES, THE| 000002A0: 20 50 52 4F 43 45 53 53 4F 52 27 53 20 52 45 47 | PROCESSOR'S REG| 000002B0: 49 53 54 45 52 53 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 54 48 45 20 |ISTERS, AND THE | 000002C0: 42 41 53 49 43 20 41 52 43 48 49 54 45 43 54 55 |BASIC ARCHITECTU| 000002D0: 52 45 20 4F 46 20 54 48 45 20 C3 36 34 2E 20 20 |RE OF THE .64. | 000002E0: C6 52 4F 4D 20 54 48 45 52 45 20 57 45 20 57 49 |.ROM THERE WE WI| 000002F0: 4C 4C 20 50 52 4F 47 52 45 53 53 20 54 4F 20 4D |LL PROGRESS TO M| 00000300: 4F 52 45 20 41 44 56 41 4E 43 45 44 20 53 55 42 |ORE ADVANCED SUB| 00000310: 4A 45 43 54 53 2E 20 20 C9 4E 20 54 48 49 53 20 |JECTS. .N THIS | 00000320: 57 41 59 20 42 45 47 49 4E 4E 45 52 53 20 43 41 |WAY BEGINNERS CA| 00000330: 4E 20 42 45 20 52 45 46 45 52 52 45 44 20 54 4F |N BE REFERRED TO| 00000340: 20 45 41 52 4C 49 45 52 20 41 52 54 49 43 4C 45 | EARLIER ARTICLE| 00000350: 53 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 41 53 20 42 45 47 49 4E 4E |S, AND AS BEGINN| 00000360: 45 52 53 20 42 45 43 4F 4D 45 20 4D 4F 52 45 20 |ERS BECOME MORE | 00000370: 45 58 50 45 52 54 2C 20 54 48 45 20 43 4F 4C 55 |EXPERT, THE COLU| 00000380: 4D 4E 20 57 49 4C 4C 20 47 52 4F 57 20 57 49 54 |MN WILL GROW WIT| 00000390: 48 20 54 48 45 4D 2E 0D 0D 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 |H THEM..... | 000003A0: D4 4F 50 49 43 53 20 46 4F 52 20 46 55 54 55 52 |.OPICS FOR FUTUR| 000003B0: 45 20 43 4F 4C 55 4D 4E 53 20 57 49 4C 4C 20 49 |E COLUMNS WILL I| 000003C0: 4E 43 4C 55 44 45 3A 0D 20 31 29 20 C8 4F 57 20 |NCLUDE:. 1) .OW | 000003D0: 54 4F 20 55 53 45 20 54 48 45 20 C3 36 34 27 53 |TO USE THE .64'S| 000003E0: 20 C2 C1 D3 C9 C3 0D 20 20 20 20 41 4E 44 20 CB | ...... AND .| 000003F0: C5 D2 CE C1 CC 20 D2 CF CD 53 20 28 D2 45 41 44 |..... ...S (.EAD| 00000400: 20 CF 4E 4C 59 0D 20 20 20 20 CD 45 4D 4F 52 49 | .NLY. .EMORI| 00000410: 45 53 29 2E 0D 20 32 29 20 C8 4F 57 20 54 4F 20 |ES).. 2) .OW TO | 00000420: 4D 4F 44 49 46 59 20 C2 C1 D3 C9 C3 2E 0D 20 33 |MODIFY ....... 3| 00000430: 29 20 C8 4F 57 20 54 4F 20 57 52 49 54 45 20 53 |) .OW TO WRITE S| 00000440: 49 4D 50 4C 45 20 44 41 54 41 42 41 53 45 53 2C |IMPLE DATABASES,| 00000450: 0D 20 20 20 20 57 4F 52 44 20 50 52 4F 43 45 53 |. WORD PROCES| 00000460: 53 4F 52 53 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 53 50 52 45 41 44 |SORS, AND SPREAD| 00000470: 2D 0D 20 20 20 20 53 48 45 45 54 53 2E 0D 20 34 |-. SHEETS.. 4| 00000480: 29 20 C8 4F 57 20 54 4F 20 50 52 4F 47 52 41 4D |) .OW TO PROGRAM| 00000490: 20 C3 36 34 20 47 52 41 50 48 49 43 53 2C 0D 20 | .64 GRAPHICS,. | 000004A0: 20 20 20 43 48 41 52 41 43 54 45 52 20 53 45 54 | CHARACTER SET| 000004B0: 53 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 54 48 45 20 53 4F 55 4E 44 |S, AND THE SOUND| 000004C0: 0D 20 20 20 20 43 48 49 50 2E 0D 0D 0D 0D 20 20 |. CHIP..... | 000004D0: 20 20 20 20 20 C3 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 52 20 C1 52 | .OMPUTER .R| 000004E0: 43 48 49 54 45 43 54 55 52 45 0D 20 20 20 20 20 |CHITECTURE. | 000004F0: 20 20 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 | ..............| 00000500: F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 D7 45 |......... .E| 00000510: 42 53 54 45 52 27 53 20 44 49 43 54 49 4F 4E 41 |BSTER'S DICTIONA| 00000520: 52 59 20 44 45 46 49 4E 45 53 20 41 52 43 48 49 |RY DEFINES ARCHI| 00000530: 54 45 43 54 55 52 45 20 41 53 3A 0D 20 20 28 31 |TECTURE AS:. (1| 00000540: 29 20 D4 48 45 20 41 52 54 20 4F 52 20 53 43 49 |) .HE ART OR SCI| 00000550: 45 4E 43 45 20 4F 46 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 4C |ENCE OF. PL| 00000560: 41 4E 4E 49 4E 47 20 41 4E 44 20 42 55 49 4C 44 |ANNING AND BUILD| 00000570: 49 4E 47 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 54 52 55 43 54 |ING. STRUCT| 00000580: 55 52 45 53 2E 0D 20 20 28 32 29 20 CD 45 54 48 |URES.. (2) .ETH| 00000590: 4F 44 20 4F 52 20 53 54 59 4C 45 20 4F 46 20 42 |OD OR STYLE OF B| 000005A0: 55 49 4C 44 49 4E 47 2E 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 C2 |UILDING... .| 000005B0: 4F 54 48 20 4F 46 20 54 48 45 53 45 20 44 45 46 |OTH OF THESE DEF| 000005C0: 49 4E 49 54 49 4F 4E 53 20 43 41 4E 20 42 45 20 |INITIONS CAN BE | 000005D0: 41 50 50 4C 49 45 44 20 54 4F 20 54 48 45 20 43 |APPLIED TO THE C| 000005E0: 4F 4E 53 54 52 55 43 54 49 4F 4E 20 4F 46 20 43 |ONSTRUCTION OF C| 000005F0: 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 52 53 20 41 53 20 57 45 4C 4C |OMPUTERS AS WELL| 00000600: 2C 20 57 48 49 43 48 20 49 53 20 57 48 59 20 43 |, WHICH IS WHY C| 00000610: 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 52 20 53 43 49 45 4E 54 49 53 |OMPUTER SCIENTIS| 00000620: 54 53 20 48 41 56 45 20 43 4F 49 4E 45 44 20 54 |TS HAVE COINED T| 00000630: 48 45 20 54 45 52 4D 20 27 43 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 |HE TERM 'COMPUTE| 00000640: 52 20 41 52 43 48 49 54 45 43 54 55 52 45 27 2E |R ARCHITECTURE'.| 00000650: 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 D7 48 45 4E 20 44 49 53 43 |.. .HEN DISC| 00000660: 55 53 53 49 4E 47 20 54 48 45 20 41 52 43 48 49 |USSING THE ARCHI| 00000670: 54 45 43 54 55 52 45 20 4F 46 20 41 20 42 55 49 |TECTURE OF A BUI| 00000680: 4C 44 49 4E 47 2C 20 57 45 20 4D 49 47 48 54 20 |LDING, WE MIGHT | 00000690: 4D 45 4E 54 49 4F 4E 20 53 55 43 48 20 54 48 49 |MENTION SUCH THI| 000006A0: 4E 47 53 20 41 53 20 54 48 45 20 42 55 49 4C 44 |NGS AS THE BUILD| 000006B0: 49 4E 47 27 53 20 53 49 5A 45 20 41 4E 44 20 49 |ING'S SIZE AND I| 000006C0: 54 53 20 46 4C 4F 4F 52 20 50 4C 41 4E 2E 20 20 |TS FLOOR PLAN. | 000006D0: C1 53 20 52 45 4C 41 54 45 44 20 54 4F 20 41 20 |.S RELATED TO A | 000006E0: 43 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 52 2C 20 53 49 5A 45 20 57 |COMPUTER, SIZE W| 000006F0: 4F 55 4C 44 20 52 45 46 45 52 20 54 4F 20 54 48 |OULD REFER TO TH| 00000700: 45 20 41 56 41 49 4C 41 42 4C 45 20 4D 45 4D 4F |E AVAILABLE MEMO| 00000710: 52 59 20 4F 46 20 54 48 45 20 4D 41 43 48 49 4E |RY OF THE MACHIN| 00000720: 45 2E 20 20 C9 4E 53 54 45 41 44 20 4F 46 20 44 |E. .NSTEAD OF D| 00000730: 4F 4F 52 53 2C 20 48 41 4C 4C 57 41 59 53 2C 20 |OORS, HALLWAYS, | 00000740: 41 4E 44 20 4F 46 46 49 43 45 53 2C 20 54 48 45 |AND OFFICES, THE| 00000750: 20 46 4C 4F 4F 52 20 50 4C 41 4E 20 57 4F 55 4C | FLOOR PLAN WOUL| 00000760: 44 20 52 45 46 45 52 20 54 4F 20 54 48 45 20 50 |D REFER TO THE P| 00000770: 4C 41 43 45 4D 45 4E 54 20 4F 46 20 C9 4E 50 55 |LACEMENT OF .NPU| 00000780: 54 2F CF 55 54 50 55 54 20 28 C9 2F CF 29 20 50 |T/.UTPUT (./.) P| 00000790: 4F 52 54 53 2C 20 48 4F 57 20 4D 45 4D 4F 52 59 |ORTS, HOW MEMORY| 000007A0: 20 49 53 20 4F 52 47 41 4E 49 5A 45 44 20 28 4D | IS ORGANIZED (M| 000007B0: 45 4D 4F 52 59 20 4D 41 4E 41 47 45 4D 45 4E 54 |EMORY MANAGEMENT| 000007C0: 29 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 54 48 45 20 4D 49 43 52 4F |), AND THE MICRO| 000007D0: 50 52 4F 43 45 53 53 4F 52 2E 0D 0D 0D 20 20 20 |PROCESSOR.... | 000007E0: 20 20 20 20 20 20 D4 48 45 20 CD 49 43 52 4F 50 | .HE .ICROP| 000007F0: 52 4F 43 45 53 53 4F 52 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |ROCESSOR. | 00000800: 20 20 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 | ..............| 00000810: F7 F7 F7 F7 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 D0 52 4F 42 41 |...... .ROBA| 00000820: 42 4C 59 20 54 48 45 20 53 49 4E 47 4C 45 20 4D |BLY THE SINGLE M| 00000830: 4F 53 54 20 49 4D 50 4F 52 54 41 4E 54 20 46 41 |OST IMPORTANT FA| 00000840: 43 54 4F 52 20 49 4E 20 54 48 45 20 41 52 43 48 |CTOR IN THE ARCH| 00000850: 49 54 45 43 54 55 52 45 20 4F 46 20 41 20 43 4F |ITECTURE OF A CO| 00000860: 4D 50 55 54 45 52 20 49 53 20 54 48 45 20 54 59 |MPUTER IS THE TY| 00000870: 50 45 20 4F 46 20 4D 49 43 52 4F 50 52 4F 43 45 |PE OF MICROPROCE| 00000880: 53 53 4F 52 20 4F 52 20 C3 D0 D5 20 28 C3 45 4E |SSOR OR ... (.EN| 00000890: 54 52 41 4C 20 D0 52 4F 43 45 53 53 49 4E 47 20 |TRAL .ROCESSING | 000008A0: D5 4E 49 54 29 20 54 48 45 20 43 4F 4D 50 55 54 |.NIT) THE COMPUT| 000008B0: 45 52 20 48 41 53 2E 20 20 D4 48 45 20 C3 D0 D5 |ER HAS. .HE ...| 000008C0: 20 49 53 20 54 48 45 20 27 42 52 41 49 4E 27 20 | IS THE 'BRAIN' | 000008D0: 49 4E 53 49 44 45 20 54 48 45 20 43 4F 4D 50 55 |INSIDE THE COMPU| 000008E0: 54 45 52 20 54 48 41 54 20 41 43 54 55 41 4C 4C |TER THAT ACTUALL| 000008F0: 59 20 45 58 45 43 55 54 45 53 20 4D 41 43 48 49 |Y EXECUTES MACHI| 00000900: 4E 45 2D 4C 41 4E 47 55 41 47 45 2C 20 4F 52 20 |NE-LANGUAGE, OR | 00000910: CD CC 2C 20 49 4E 53 54 52 55 43 54 49 4F 4E 53 |.., INSTRUCTIONS| 00000920: 2E 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 C9 4E 20 46 41 43 54 2C |... .N FACT,| 00000930: 20 41 4C 4C 20 43 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 52 20 50 52 | ALL COMPUTER PR| 00000940: 4F 47 52 41 4D 53 20 55 4C 54 49 4D 41 54 45 4C |OGRAMS ULTIMATEL| 00000950: 59 20 41 52 45 20 4D 45 52 45 4C 59 20 53 45 51 |Y ARE MERELY SEQ| 00000960: 55 45 4E 43 45 53 20 4F 46 20 CD CC 20 49 4E 53 |UENCES OF .. INS| 00000970: 54 52 55 43 54 49 4F 4E 53 20 57 48 49 43 48 20 |TRUCTIONS WHICH | 00000980: 54 48 45 20 C3 D0 D5 20 45 58 45 43 55 54 45 53 |THE ... EXECUTES| 00000990: 2E 20 20 C5 56 45 4E 20 48 49 47 48 20 4C 45 56 |. .VEN HIGH LEV| 000009A0: 45 4C 20 4C 41 4E 47 55 41 47 45 53 20 28 53 4F |EL LANGUAGES (SO| 000009B0: 20 4E 41 4D 45 44 20 42 45 43 41 55 53 45 20 54 | NAMED BECAUSE T| 000009C0: 48 45 59 20 52 45 53 45 4D 42 4C 45 20 C5 4E 47 |HEY RESEMBLE .NG| 000009D0: 4C 49 53 48 29 20 4C 49 4B 45 20 C2 C1 D3 C9 C3 |LISH) LIKE .....| 000009E0: 20 41 52 45 20 49 4D 50 4C 45 4D 45 4E 54 45 44 | ARE IMPLEMENTED| 000009F0: 20 54 48 49 53 20 57 41 59 2E 20 20 C6 4F 52 20 | THIS WAY. .OR | 00000A00: 45 58 41 4D 50 4C 45 2C 20 49 54 20 52 45 51 55 |EXAMPLE, IT REQU| 00000A10: 49 52 45 53 20 4D 41 4E 59 20 48 55 4E 44 52 45 |IRES MANY HUNDRE| 00000A20: 44 53 20 4F 46 20 CD CC 20 49 4E 53 54 52 55 43 |DS OF .. INSTRUC| 00000A30: 54 49 4F 4E 53 20 54 4F 20 50 45 52 46 4F 52 4D |TIONS TO PERFORM| 00000A40: 20 4F 4E 45 20 C2 C1 D3 C9 C3 20 43 4F 4D 4D 41 | ONE ..... COMMA| 00000A50: 4E 44 20 53 55 43 48 20 41 53 20 54 48 45 20 D0 |ND SUCH AS THE .| 00000A60: D2 C9 CE D4 20 53 54 41 54 45 4D 45 4E 54 2E 0D |.... STATEMENT..| 00000A70: 0D 20 20 20 20 20 D4 48 45 20 C3 36 34 20 55 53 |. .HE .64 US| 00000A80: 45 53 20 54 48 45 20 57 4F 52 4B 48 4F 52 53 45 |ES THE WORKHORSE| 00000A90: 20 36 35 31 30 20 C3 D0 D5 2C 20 57 48 49 43 48 | 6510 ..., WHICH| 00000AA0: 20 49 53 20 41 4E 20 45 4E 48 41 4E 43 45 44 20 | IS AN ENHANCED | 00000AB0: 56 45 52 53 49 4F 4E 20 4F 46 20 54 48 45 20 57 |VERSION OF THE W| 00000AC0: 49 44 45 4C 59 20 55 53 45 44 20 36 35 30 32 20 |IDELY USED 6502 | 00000AD0: C3 D0 D5 2E 20 20 D4 48 45 20 36 35 31 30 20 C3 |.... .HE 6510 .| 00000AE0: D0 D5 20 57 49 4C 4C 20 42 45 20 4D 4F 52 45 20 |.. WILL BE MORE | 00000AF0: 46 55 4C 4C 59 20 44 49 53 43 55 53 53 45 44 20 |FULLY DISCUSSED | 00000B00: 49 4E 20 46 55 54 55 52 45 20 43 4F 4C 55 4D 4E |IN FUTURE COLUMN| 00000B10: 53 2E 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 20 20 20 |S............ | 00000B20: 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 C3 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 52 20 | .OMPUTER | 00000B30: CD 45 4D 4F 52 59 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |.EMORY. | 00000B40: 20 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 | ...............| 00000B50: 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 C3 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 52 20 |.. .OMPUTER | 00000B60: 4D 45 4D 4F 52 59 20 49 53 20 44 49 56 49 44 45 |MEMORY IS DIVIDE| 00000B70: 44 20 49 4E 54 4F 20 4D 41 4E 59 20 54 49 4E 59 |D INTO MANY TINY| 00000B80: 2C 20 45 41 53 49 4C 59 20 4D 41 4E 41 47 45 44 |, EASILY MANAGED| 00000B90: 20 55 4E 49 54 53 2C 20 4F 52 20 43 45 4C 4C 53 | UNITS, OR CELLS| 00000BA0: 2C 20 43 41 4C 4C 45 44 20 27 42 59 54 45 53 27 |, CALLED 'BYTES'| 00000BB0: 2E 20 20 CD 45 4D 4F 52 59 20 49 53 20 50 48 59 |. .EMORY IS PHY| 00000BC0: 53 49 43 41 4C 4C 59 20 43 4F 4E 54 41 49 4E 45 |SICALLY CONTAINE| 00000BD0: 44 20 49 4E 20 53 50 45 43 49 41 4C 49 5A 45 44 |D IN SPECIALIZED| 00000BE0: 20 43 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 52 20 43 48 49 50 53 20 | COMPUTER CHIPS | 00000BF0: 4B 4E 4F 57 4E 20 41 53 20 D2 C1 CD 20 28 D2 41 |KNOWN AS ... (.A| 00000C00: 4E 44 4F 4D 20 C1 43 43 45 53 53 20 CD 45 4D 4F |NDOM .CCESS .EMO| 00000C10: 52 59 29 20 4F 52 20 D2 CF CD 20 28 D2 45 41 44 |RY) OR ... (.EAD| 00000C20: 20 CF 4E 4C 59 20 CD 45 4D 4F 52 59 29 20 43 48 | .NLY .EMORY) CH| 00000C30: 49 50 53 2E 20 D4 48 45 53 45 20 43 48 49 50 53 |IPS. .HESE CHIPS| 00000C40: 20 41 52 45 20 57 49 52 45 44 20 49 4E 54 4F 20 | ARE WIRED INTO | 00000C50: 54 48 45 20 43 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 52 20 49 4E 20 |THE COMPUTER IN | 00000C60: 53 55 43 48 20 41 20 57 41 59 20 54 48 41 54 20 |SUCH A WAY THAT | 00000C70: 45 41 43 48 20 42 59 54 45 20 48 41 53 20 49 54 |EACH BYTE HAS IT| 00000C80: 53 20 4F 57 4E 20 55 4E 49 51 55 45 20 4C 4F 43 |S OWN UNIQUE LOC| 00000C90: 41 54 49 4F 4E 2C 20 4F 52 20 27 41 44 44 52 45 |ATION, OR 'ADDRE| 00000CA0: 53 53 27 2E 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 D4 48 45 20 36 |SS'... .HE 6| 00000CB0: 35 31 30 20 C3 D0 D5 20 43 41 4E 20 41 43 43 45 |510 ... CAN ACCE| 00000CC0: 53 53 20 55 50 20 54 4F 20 36 35 2C 35 33 36 20 |SS UP TO 65,536 | 00000CD0: 42 59 54 45 53 2C 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 45 44 20 |BYTES, NUMBERED | 00000CE0: 46 52 4F 4D 20 41 44 44 52 45 53 53 20 30 20 55 |FROM ADDRESS 0 U| 00000CF0: 50 20 54 48 52 4F 55 47 48 20 41 44 44 52 45 53 |P THROUGH ADDRES| 00000D00: 53 20 36 35 35 33 35 2E 20 20 D9 4F 55 20 41 52 |S 65535. .OU AR| 00000D10: 45 20 50 52 4F 42 41 42 4C 59 20 46 41 4D 49 4C |E PROBABLY FAMIL| 00000D20: 49 41 52 20 57 49 54 48 20 54 48 45 20 D0 CF CB |IAR WITH THE ...| 00000D30: C5 20 43 4F 4D 4D 41 4E 44 20 49 4E 20 C2 C1 D3 |. COMMAND IN ...| 00000D40: C9 C3 20 57 48 49 43 48 20 52 45 51 55 49 52 45 |.. WHICH REQUIRE| 00000D50: 53 20 41 4E 20 41 44 44 52 45 53 53 20 41 4E 44 |S AN ADDRESS AND| 00000D60: 20 41 20 56 41 4C 55 45 20 41 53 20 50 41 52 41 | A VALUE AS PARA| 00000D70: 4D 45 54 45 52 53 2E 20 20 D7 45 4C 4C 2C 20 D0 |METERS. .ELL, .| 00000D80: CF CB C5 20 50 55 54 53 2C 20 4F 52 20 22 50 4F |... PUTS, OR "PO| 00000D90: 4B 45 53 22 2C 20 54 48 45 20 56 41 4C 55 45 20 |KES", THE VALUE | 00000DA0: 49 4E 54 4F 20 54 48 45 20 42 59 54 45 20 4C 4F |INTO THE BYTE LO| 00000DB0: 43 41 54 45 44 20 41 54 20 54 48 45 20 41 44 44 |CATED AT THE ADD| 00000DC0: 52 45 53 53 20 59 4F 55 27 56 45 20 53 50 45 43 |RESS YOU'VE SPEC| 00000DD0: 49 46 49 45 44 2E 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 D9 4F 55 |IFIED... .OU| 00000DE0: 20 4D 41 59 20 41 4C 53 4F 20 48 41 56 45 20 52 | MAY ALSO HAVE R| 00000DF0: 45 41 44 20 4F 52 20 48 45 41 52 44 20 4F 46 20 |EAD OR HEARD OF | 00000E00: 54 48 45 20 54 45 52 4D 20 27 4B 49 4C 4F 42 59 |THE TERM 'KILOBY| 00000E10: 54 45 27 20 4F 52 2C 20 41 42 42 52 45 56 49 41 |TE' OR, ABBREVIA| 00000E20: 54 45 44 2C 20 22 CB 22 2E 20 20 CB 49 4C 4F 20 |TED, ".". .ILO | 00000E30: 49 53 20 41 20 50 52 45 46 49 58 20 57 48 49 43 |IS A PREFIX WHIC| 00000E40: 48 20 4D 45 41 4E 53 20 4F 4E 45 20 54 48 4F 55 |H MEANS ONE THOU| 00000E50: 53 41 4E 44 2E 20 20 C6 4F 52 20 45 58 41 4D 50 |SAND. .OR EXAMP| 00000E60: 4C 45 2C 20 4F 4E 45 20 4B 49 4C 4F 4D 45 54 45 |LE, ONE KILOMETE| 00000E70: 52 20 53 49 47 4E 49 46 49 45 53 20 41 20 44 49 |R SIGNIFIES A DI| 00000E80: 53 54 41 4E 43 45 20 4F 46 20 31 30 30 30 20 4D |STANCE OF 1000 M| 00000E90: 45 54 45 52 53 2E 20 20 C1 20 4B 49 4C 4F 42 59 |ETERS. . KILOBY| 00000EA0: 54 45 2C 20 48 4F 57 45 56 45 52 2C 20 45 51 55 |TE, HOWEVER, EQU| 00000EB0: 41 4C 53 20 31 30 32 34 20 42 59 54 45 53 2C 20 |ALS 1024 BYTES, | 00000EC0: 4E 4F 54 20 31 30 30 30 2E 20 20 D4 48 49 53 20 |NOT 1000. .HIS | 00000ED0: 49 53 20 42 45 43 41 55 53 45 20 43 4F 4D 50 55 |IS BECAUSE COMPU| 00000EE0: 54 45 52 53 20 43 4F 55 4E 54 20 49 4E 20 C2 41 |TERS COUNT IN .A| 00000EF0: 53 45 20 32 20 28 54 48 45 20 42 49 4E 41 52 59 |SE 2 (THE BINARY| 00000F00: 20 53 59 53 54 45 4D 29 20 41 4E 44 20 4D 45 4D | SYSTEM) AND MEM| 00000F10: 4F 52 59 20 49 53 20 4F 52 47 41 4E 49 5A 45 44 |ORY IS ORGANIZED| 00000F20: 20 49 4E 54 4F 20 55 4E 49 54 53 20 42 41 53 45 | INTO UNITS BASE| 00000F30: 44 20 4F 4E 20 54 48 45 20 50 4F 57 45 52 53 20 |D ON THE POWERS | 00000F40: 4F 46 20 54 57 4F 2E 20 20 C1 20 27 50 41 47 45 |OF TWO. . 'PAGE| 00000F50: 27 20 4F 46 20 43 4F 4D 50 55 54 45 52 20 4D 45 |' OF COMPUTER ME| 00000F60: 4D 4F 52 59 20 45 51 55 41 4C 53 20 32 35 36 20 |MORY EQUALS 256 | 00000F70: 42 59 54 45 53 20 4F 52 20 32 20 54 4F 20 54 48 |BYTES OR 2 TO TH| 00000F80: 45 20 50 4F 57 45 52 20 4F 46 20 38 2E 20 20 C1 |E POWER OF 8. .| 00000F90: 20 4B 49 4C 4F 42 59 54 45 20 45 51 55 41 4C 53 | KILOBYTE EQUALS| 00000FA0: 20 34 20 50 41 47 45 53 2C 20 4F 52 20 32 20 54 | 4 PAGES, OR 2 T| 00000FB0: 4F 20 54 48 45 20 50 4F 57 45 52 20 4F 46 20 31 |O THE POWER OF 1| 00000FC0: 30 2E 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 D4 48 45 |0... .HE| 00000FD0: 20 C2 49 4E 41 52 59 20 D3 59 53 54 45 4D 0D 20 | .INARY .YSTEM. | 00000FE0: 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 | ........| 00000FF0: F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 |........... | 00001000: C1 20 42 59 54 45 20 4D 41 59 20 43 4F 4E 54 41 |. BYTE MAY CONTA| 00001010: 49 4E 20 41 20 56 41 4C 55 45 20 49 4E 20 54 48 |IN A VALUE IN TH| 00001020: 45 20 52 41 4E 47 45 20 4F 46 20 30 20 54 4F 20 |E RANGE OF 0 TO | 00001030: 32 35 35 2E 20 20 D7 48 59 20 54 48 49 53 20 53 |255. .HY THIS S| 00001040: 54 52 41 4E 47 45 20 55 50 50 45 52 20 4C 49 4D |TRANGE UPPER LIM| 00001050: 49 54 20 4F 4E 20 54 48 45 20 56 41 4C 55 45 20 |IT ON THE VALUE | 00001060: 4F 46 20 41 20 42 59 54 45 3F 20 20 D7 48 59 20 |OF A BYTE? .HY | 00001070: 4E 4F 54 20 41 20 52 41 4E 47 45 20 4F 46 20 30 |NOT A RANGE OF 0| 00001080: 20 54 4F 20 31 30 30 2C 20 4F 52 20 45 56 45 4E | TO 100, OR EVEN| 00001090: 20 30 20 54 4F 20 31 30 30 30 3F 20 20 D4 48 45 | 0 TO 1000? .HE| 000010A0: 20 52 45 41 53 4F 4E 20 49 53 20 42 45 43 41 55 | REASON IS BECAU| 000010B0: 53 45 20 41 20 42 59 54 45 20 43 4F 4E 53 49 53 |SE A BYTE CONSIS| 000010C0: 54 53 20 4F 46 20 38 20 53 4D 41 4C 4C 45 52 20 |TS OF 8 SMALLER | 000010D0: 55 4E 49 54 53 20 43 41 4C 4C 45 44 20 27 42 49 |UNITS CALLED 'BI| 000010E0: 54 53 27 20 28 C2 C9 4E 41 52 59 20 44 49 47 49 |TS' (..NARY DIGI| 000010F0: D4 29 2E 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 C1 20 42 49 54 20 |.)... . BIT | 00001100: 43 41 4E 20 54 41 4B 45 20 4F 4E 4C 59 20 4F 4E |CAN TAKE ONLY ON| 00001110: 45 20 4F 46 20 54 57 4F 20 56 41 4C 55 45 53 2C |E OF TWO VALUES,| 00001120: 20 45 49 54 48 45 52 20 30 20 4F 52 20 31 2E 20 | EITHER 0 OR 1. | 00001130: 20 C9 4E 53 49 44 45 20 54 48 45 20 43 4F 4D 50 | .NSIDE THE COMP| 00001140: 55 54 45 52 2C 20 41 20 42 49 54 20 49 53 20 41 |UTER, A BIT IS A| 00001150: 43 54 55 41 4C 4C 59 20 41 20 56 4F 4C 54 41 47 |CTUALLY A VOLTAG| 00001160: 45 2C 20 49 4E 54 45 52 50 52 45 54 45 44 20 41 |E, INTERPRETED A| 00001170: 53 20 4F 46 46 20 4F 52 20 5A 45 52 4F 20 46 4F |S OFF OR ZERO FO| 00001180: 52 20 41 20 56 41 4C 55 45 20 4F 46 20 30 20 54 |R A VALUE OF 0 T| 00001190: 4F 20 31 2E 35 20 56 4F 4C 54 53 2C 20 41 4E 44 |O 1.5 VOLTS, AND| 000011A0: 20 41 53 20 4F 4E 20 4F 52 20 4F 4E 45 20 46 4F | AS ON OR ONE FO| 000011B0: 52 20 41 20 56 41 4C 55 45 20 4F 46 20 33 2E 35 |R A VALUE OF 3.5| 000011C0: 20 54 4F 20 35 20 56 4F 4C 54 53 2E 20 20 D4 48 | TO 5 VOLTS. .H| 000011D0: 45 20 52 41 4E 47 45 20 4C 49 4D 49 54 41 54 49 |E RANGE LIMITATI| 000011E0: 4F 4E 20 46 4F 52 20 54 48 45 20 56 41 4C 55 45 |ON FOR THE VALUE| 000011F0: 20 4F 46 20 41 20 42 59 54 45 20 4F 43 43 55 52 | OF A BYTE OCCUR| 00001200: 53 20 42 45 43 41 55 53 45 20 38 20 42 49 54 53 |S BECAUSE 8 BITS| 00001210: 20 48 41 53 20 54 48 45 20 43 41 50 41 43 49 54 | HAS THE CAPACIT| 00001220: 59 20 46 4F 52 20 4F 4E 4C 59 20 32 35 36 20 55 |Y FOR ONLY 256 U| 00001230: 4E 49 51 55 45 20 50 45 52 4D 55 54 41 54 49 4F |NIQUE PERMUTATIO| 00001240: 4E 53 20 4F 46 20 54 48 45 20 41 52 52 41 4E 47 |NS OF THE ARRANG| 00001250: 45 4D 45 4E 54 20 4F 46 20 4F 4E 20 41 4E 44 20 |EMENT OF ON AND | 00001260: 4F 46 46 20 42 49 54 53 20 49 4E 20 54 48 45 20 |OFF BITS IN THE | 00001270: 42 59 54 45 2E 20 20 D4 48 49 53 20 41 52 52 41 |BYTE. .HIS ARRA| 00001280: 4E 47 45 4D 45 4E 54 20 52 55 4E 53 20 46 52 4F |NGEMENT RUNS FRO| 00001290: 4D 20 41 4C 4C 20 38 20 42 49 54 53 20 4F 46 46 |M ALL 8 BITS OFF| 000012A0: 2C 20 57 48 49 43 48 20 49 53 20 52 45 47 41 52 |, WHICH IS REGAR| 000012B0: 44 45 44 20 41 53 20 5A 45 52 4F 2C 20 54 4F 20 |DED AS ZERO, TO | 000012C0: 41 4C 4C 20 38 20 42 49 54 53 20 4F 4E 2C 20 57 |ALL 8 BITS ON, W| 000012D0: 48 49 43 48 20 49 53 20 32 35 35 2E 0D 0D 20 20 |HICH IS 255... | 000012E0: 20 20 20 D4 48 45 20 49 4E 44 49 56 49 44 55 41 | .HE INDIVIDUA| 000012F0: 4C 20 42 49 54 53 20 41 52 45 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 |L BITS ARE NUMBE| 00001300: 52 45 44 20 46 52 4F 4D 20 37 20 54 4F 20 30 20 |RED FROM 7 TO 0 | 00001310: 49 4E 20 44 45 53 43 45 4E 44 49 4E 47 20 4F 52 |IN DESCENDING OR| 00001320: 44 45 52 2C 20 57 49 54 48 20 42 49 54 20 37 20 |DER, WITH BIT 7 | 00001330: 42 45 49 4E 47 20 54 48 45 20 27 48 49 47 48 27 |BEING THE 'HIGH'| 00001340: 20 42 49 54 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 42 49 54 20 30 20 | BIT, AND BIT 0 | 00001350: 42 45 49 4E 47 20 54 48 45 20 27 4C 4F 57 27 20 |BEING THE 'LOW' | 00001360: 42 49 54 2E 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 F0 |BIT... .| 00001370: 60 F2 60 F2 60 F2 60 F2 60 F2 60 F2 60 F2 60 EE |`.`.`.`.`.`.`.`.| 00001380: 0D 20 20 20 20 C8 49 47 48 20 DD 37 DD 36 DD 35 |. .IGH .7.6.5| 00001390: DD 34 DD 33 DD 32 DD 31 DD 30 DD 20 CC 4F 57 0D |.4.3.2.1.0. .OW.| 000013A0: 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ED 60 F1 60 F1 60 F1 | .`.`.`.| 000013B0: 60 F1 60 F1 60 F1 60 F1 60 FD 0D 0D CE 55 4D 42 |`.`.`.`.`....UMB| 000013C0: 45 52 53 20 4C 41 52 47 45 52 20 54 48 41 4E 20 |ERS LARGER THAN | 000013D0: 31 20 41 52 45 20 50 4F 53 53 49 42 4C 45 20 42 |1 ARE POSSIBLE B| 000013E0: 59 20 47 49 56 49 4E 47 20 45 41 43 48 20 42 49 |Y GIVING EACH BI| 000013F0: 54 20 41 20 27 57 45 49 47 48 54 27 20 41 43 43 |T A 'WEIGHT' ACC| 00001400: 4F 52 44 49 4E 47 20 54 4F 20 54 48 45 20 42 41 |ORDING TO THE BA| 00001410: 53 45 20 54 57 4F 20 4F 52 20 42 49 4E 41 52 59 |SE TWO OR BINARY| 00001420: 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 20 53 59 53 54 45 4D 2E 0D | NUMBER SYSTEM..| 00001430: 0D 20 20 20 20 20 C9 4E 20 C2 41 53 45 20 32 20 |. .N .ASE 2 | 00001440: 4D 41 54 48 2C 20 42 49 54 20 30 2C 20 54 48 45 |MATH, BIT 0, THE| 00001450: 20 52 49 47 48 54 4D 4F 53 54 20 42 49 54 2C 20 | RIGHTMOST BIT, | 00001460: 52 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 53 20 32 5E 30 2C 20 |REPRESENTS 2^0, | 00001470: 52 45 41 44 20 41 53 20 54 57 4F 20 54 4F 20 54 |READ AS TWO TO T| 00001480: 48 45 20 50 4F 57 45 52 20 4F 46 20 5A 45 52 4F |HE POWER OF ZERO| 00001490: 2E 20 20 D4 48 45 20 5E 20 43 48 41 52 41 43 54 |. .HE ^ CHARACT| 000014A0: 45 52 20 49 53 20 55 53 45 44 20 54 4F 20 49 4E |ER IS USED TO IN| 000014B0: 44 49 43 41 54 45 20 45 58 50 4F 4E 45 4E 54 49 |DICATE EXPONENTI| 000014C0: 41 54 49 4F 4E 2E 20 20 C2 49 54 20 31 20 52 45 |ATION. .IT 1 RE| 000014D0: 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 53 20 32 5E 31 2E 20 20 C2 |PRESENTS 2^1. .| 000014E0: 49 54 20 32 20 52 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 53 20 |IT 2 REPRESENTS | 000014F0: 32 5E 32 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 53 4F 20 4F 4E 2E 20 |2^2, AND SO ON. | 00001500: 20 D4 48 45 20 54 41 42 4C 45 20 4F 4E 20 54 48 | .HE TABLE ON TH| 00001510: 45 20 4E 45 58 54 20 50 41 47 45 20 53 48 4F 57 |E NEXT PAGE SHOW| 00001520: 53 20 54 48 45 20 43 4F 4E 4E 45 43 54 49 4F 4E |S THE CONNECTION| 00001530: 20 42 45 54 57 45 45 4E 20 42 49 54 20 50 4F 53 | BETWEEN BIT POS| 00001540: 49 54 49 4F 4E 20 41 4E 44 20 56 41 4C 55 45 2E |ITION AND VALUE.| 00001550: 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D F0 60 60 60 F2 60 60 F2 60 |........```.``.`| 00001560: 60 F2 60 60 F2 60 F2 60 F2 60 F2 60 EE 20 C2 49 |`.``.`.`.`.`. .I| 00001570: 54 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 20 26 0D DD 20 20 37 DD |T NUMBER &.. 7.| 00001580: 20 36 DD 20 35 DD 20 34 DD 33 DD 32 DD 31 DD 30 | 6. 5. 4.3.2.1.0| 00001590: DD 20 D0 4F 57 45 52 20 4F 46 20 54 57 4F 0D EB |. .OWER OF TWO..| 000015A0: 60 60 60 DB 60 60 DB 60 60 DB 60 60 DB 60 DB 60 |```.``.``.``.`.`| 000015B0: DB 60 DB 60 F3 0D DD 31 32 38 DD 36 34 DD 33 32 |.`.`...128.64.32| 000015C0: DD 31 36 DD 38 DD 34 DD 32 DD 31 DD 20 D7 45 49 |.16.8.4.2.1. .EI| 000015D0: 47 48 54 20 4F 52 0D ED 60 60 60 F1 60 60 F1 60 |GHT OR..```.``.`| 000015E0: 60 F1 60 60 F1 60 F1 60 F1 60 F1 60 FD 20 D6 41 |`.``.`.`.`.`. .A| 000015F0: 4C 55 45 0D 0D C6 4F 52 20 45 58 41 4D 50 4C 45 |LUE...OR EXAMPLE| 00001600: 2C 20 54 48 45 20 44 45 43 49 4D 41 4C 20 56 41 |, THE DECIMAL VA| 00001610: 4C 55 45 20 4F 46 3A 0D 0D 20 20 20 30 31 30 30 |LUE OF:.. 0100| 00001620: 30 30 30 30 20 3D 20 36 34 0D 20 20 20 30 30 30 |0000 = 64. 000| 00001630: 30 30 30 30 30 20 3D 20 30 0D 20 20 20 31 30 31 |00000 = 0. 101| 00001640: 30 30 31 31 30 20 3D 20 31 32 38 2B 33 32 2B 34 |00110 = 128+32+4| 00001650: 2B 32 20 3D 20 31 36 36 0D 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 |+2 = 166. 0000| 00001660: 31 31 31 31 20 3D 20 38 2B 34 2B 32 2B 31 20 3D |1111 = 8+4+2+1 =| 00001670: 20 31 35 0D 20 20 20 31 31 31 31 31 31 31 30 20 | 15. 11111110 | 00001680: 3D 20 31 32 38 2B 36 34 2B 33 32 2B 31 36 2B 38 |= 128+64+32+16+8| 00001690: 2B 34 2B 32 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |+4+2. | 000016A0: 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 | | 000016B0: 3D 20 32 35 34 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 C9 46 20 41 |= 254.. .F A| 000016C0: 20 53 49 4E 47 4C 45 20 42 59 54 45 20 43 41 4E | SINGLE BYTE CAN| 000016D0: 20 4F 4E 4C 59 20 43 4F 4E 54 41 49 4E 20 41 20 | ONLY CONTAIN A | 000016E0: 56 41 4C 55 45 20 4F 46 20 30 20 54 4F 20 32 35 |VALUE OF 0 TO 25| 000016F0: 35 2C 20 54 48 45 4E 20 48 4F 57 20 41 52 45 20 |5, THEN HOW ARE | 00001700: 4C 41 52 47 45 52 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 53 20 52 |LARGER NUMBERS R| 00001710: 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 45 44 3F 20 20 C2 59 20 |EPRESENTED? .Y | 00001720: 55 53 49 4E 47 20 4D 4F 52 45 20 54 48 41 4E 20 |USING MORE THAN | 00001730: 4F 4E 45 20 42 59 54 45 20 54 4F 20 52 45 50 52 |ONE BYTE TO REPR| 00001740: 45 53 45 4E 54 20 54 48 45 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 |ESENT THE NUMBER| 00001750: 2E 20 20 D4 48 45 20 53 45 43 4F 4E 44 20 42 59 |. .HE SECOND BY| 00001760: 54 45 20 52 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 53 20 42 49 |TE REPRESENTS BI| 00001770: 54 53 20 45 49 47 48 54 20 54 4F 20 46 49 46 54 |TS EIGHT TO FIFT| 00001780: 45 45 4E 2E 20 20 C2 49 54 20 38 20 48 41 53 20 |EEN. .IT 8 HAS | 00001790: 41 20 57 45 49 47 48 54 20 4F 46 20 32 20 54 4F |A WEIGHT OF 2 TO| 000017A0: 20 54 48 45 20 50 4F 57 45 52 20 4F 46 20 38 2C | THE POWER OF 8,| 000017B0: 20 42 49 54 20 39 20 48 41 53 20 41 20 56 41 4C | BIT 9 HAS A VAL| 000017C0: 55 45 20 4F 46 20 32 20 54 4F 20 54 48 45 20 50 |UE OF 2 TO THE P| 000017D0: 4F 57 45 52 20 4F 46 20 39 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 53 |OWER OF 9, AND S| 000017E0: 4F 20 4F 4E 2E 20 20 D4 48 45 20 54 41 42 4C 45 |O ON. .HE TABLE| 000017F0: 20 4F 4E 20 54 48 45 20 4E 45 58 54 20 50 41 47 | ON THE NEXT PAG| 00001800: 45 20 53 48 4F 57 53 20 54 48 45 20 43 4F 4E 4E |E SHOWS THE CONN| 00001810: 45 43 54 49 4F 4E 20 42 45 54 57 45 45 4E 20 42 |ECTION BETWEEN B| 00001820: 49 54 20 50 4F 53 49 54 49 4F 4E 20 41 4E 44 20 |IT POSITION AND | 00001830: 56 41 4C 55 45 2E 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D F0 60 60 60 60 |VALUE.......````| 00001840: 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 F2 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 |````````.```````| 00001850: F2 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 EE 0D DD |.````````````...| 00001860: 20 C2 49 54 20 CE 55 4D 42 45 52 20 DD 20 D6 41 | .IT .UMBER . .A| 00001870: 4C 55 45 20 DD 20 D0 4F 57 45 52 20 4F 46 20 32 |LUE . .OWER OF 2| 00001880: 20 DD 0D EB 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 | ...````````````| 00001890: DB 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 DB 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 |.```````.```````| 000018A0: 60 60 60 60 60 F3 0D DD 20 20 20 20 20 38 20 20 |`````... 8 | 000018B0: 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 20 32 35 36 20 DD 20 20 20 | . 256 . | 000018C0: 20 20 38 20 20 20 20 20 20 DD 0D DD 20 20 20 20 | 8 ... | 000018D0: 20 39 20 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 20 35 31 32 20 | 9 . 512 | 000018E0: DD 20 20 20 20 20 39 20 20 20 20 20 20 DD 0D DD |. 9 ...| 000018F0: 20 20 20 20 31 30 20 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 31 | 10 . 1| 00001900: 30 32 34 20 DD 20 20 20 20 31 30 20 20 20 20 20 |024 . 10 | 00001910: 20 DD 0D DD 20 20 20 20 31 31 20 20 20 20 20 20 | ... 11 | 00001920: DD 20 20 32 30 34 38 20 DD 20 20 20 20 31 31 20 |. 2048 . 11 | 00001930: 20 20 20 20 20 DD 0D DD 20 20 20 20 31 32 20 20 | ... 12 | 00001940: 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 34 30 39 36 20 DD 20 20 20 | . 4096 . | 00001950: 20 31 32 20 20 20 20 20 20 DD 0D DD 20 20 20 20 | 12 ... | 00001960: 31 33 20 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 38 31 39 32 20 |13 . 8192 | 00001970: DD 20 20 20 20 31 33 20 20 20 20 20 20 DD 0D DD |. 13 ...| 00001980: 20 20 20 20 31 34 20 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 31 36 | 14 . 16| 00001990: 33 38 34 20 DD 20 20 20 20 31 34 20 20 20 20 20 |384 . 14 | 000019A0: 20 DD 0D DD 20 20 20 20 31 35 20 20 20 20 20 20 | ... 15 | 000019B0: DD 20 33 32 37 36 38 20 DD 20 20 20 20 31 35 20 |. 32768 . 15 | 000019C0: 20 20 20 20 20 DD 0D ED 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 | ...````````| 000019D0: 60 60 60 60 F1 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 F1 60 60 60 |````.```````.```| 000019E0: 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 FD 0D 0D 0D 0D 20 20 |`````````..... | 000019F0: 20 20 20 C9 54 27 53 20 50 4F 53 53 49 42 4C 45 | .T'S POSSIBLE| 00001A00: 20 54 4F 20 52 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 20 50 52 | TO REPRESENT PR| 00001A10: 41 43 54 49 43 41 4C 4C 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NOTATION | 00002180: 49 53 20 54 4F 20 50 52 45 46 41 43 45 20 45 41 |IS TO PREFACE EA| 00002190: 43 48 20 48 45 58 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 20 57 49 |CH HEX NUMBER WI| 000021A0: 54 48 20 54 48 45 20 24 20 43 48 41 52 41 43 54 |TH THE $ CHARACT| 000021B0: 45 52 2E 20 D4 48 49 53 20 49 53 20 53 4F 20 48 |ER. .HIS IS SO H| 000021C0: 45 58 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 53 20 43 41 4E 20 42 |EX NUMBERS CAN B| 000021D0: 45 20 45 41 53 49 4C 59 20 44 49 53 54 49 4E 47 |E EASILY DISTING| 000021E0: 55 49 53 48 45 44 20 46 52 4F 4D 20 44 45 43 49 |UISHED FROM DECI| 000021F0: 4D 41 4C 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 53 2E 20 C9 4E 20 |MAL NUMBERS. .N | 00002200: 48 45 58 2C 20 4F 55 52 20 4C 49 53 54 53 20 41 |HEX, OUR LISTS A| 00002210: 52 45 3A 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |RE:.. | 00002220: 20 20 20 24 C4 C3 20 20 24 C4 C3 0D 20 20 20 20 | $.. $... | 00002230: 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 24 C5 C5 20 20 24 | $.. $| 00002240: C5 C5 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 |... | 00002250: 20 24 C6 37 20 20 24 C6 37 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 | $.7 $.7. | 00002260: 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 24 C1 C4 20 20 24 C2 35 | $.. $.5| 00002270: 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 24 |. $| 00002280: C6 36 20 20 24 C6 36 0D 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 CF |.6 $.6... .| 00002290: 4E 45 20 48 45 58 41 44 45 43 49 4D 41 4C 20 44 |NE HEXADECIMAL D| 000022A0: 49 47 49 54 20 52 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 53 20 |IGIT REPRESENTS | 000022B0: 34 20 42 49 54 53 20 28 43 41 4C 4C 45 44 20 41 |4 BITS (CALLED A| 000022C0: 20 4E 49 42 42 4C 45 29 2C 20 53 4F 20 4F 4E 4C | NIBBLE), SO ONL| 000022D0: 59 20 54 57 4F 20 48 45 58 20 44 49 47 49 54 53 |Y TWO HEX DIGITS| 000022E0: 20 52 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 20 41 4E 59 20 42 | REPRESENT ANY B| 000022F0: 59 54 45 20 28 56 41 4C 55 45 20 30 2D 32 35 35 |YTE (VALUE 0-255| 00002300: 29 2E 20 20 C6 4F 55 52 20 48 45 58 20 44 49 47 |). .OUR HEX DIG| 00002310: 49 54 53 20 41 52 45 20 55 53 45 44 20 54 4F 20 |ITS ARE USED TO | 00002320: 52 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 20 41 4E 20 41 44 44 |REPRESENT AN ADD| 00002330: 52 45 53 53 20 28 56 41 4C 55 45 20 30 2D 36 35 |RESS (VALUE 0-65| 00002340: 35 33 35 29 2E 20 20 D4 48 45 20 4D 41 58 49 4D |535). .HE MAXIM| 00002350: 55 4D 20 56 41 4C 55 45 20 57 48 49 43 48 20 46 |UM VALUE WHICH F| 00002360: 4F 55 52 20 42 49 54 53 20 43 41 4E 20 52 45 50 |OUR BITS CAN REP| 00002370: 52 45 53 45 4E 54 20 49 53 20 31 35 20 28 38 2B |RESENT IS 15 (8+| 00002380: 34 2B 32 2B 31 29 2E 20 20 CE 55 4D 42 45 52 53 |4+2+1). .UMBERS| 00002390: 20 5A 45 52 4F 20 54 48 52 4F 55 47 48 20 4E 49 | ZERO THROUGH NI| 000023A0: 4E 45 20 41 52 45 20 52 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 |NE ARE REPRESENT| 000023B0: 45 44 20 42 59 20 54 48 45 20 4E 55 4D 45 52 49 |ED BY THE NUMERI| 000023C0: 43 20 53 59 4D 42 4F 4C 53 20 30 2D 39 2E 20 20 |C SYMBOLS 0-9. | 000023D0: D6 41 4C 55 45 53 20 54 45 4E 20 54 48 52 4F 55 |.ALUES TEN THROU| 000023E0: 47 48 20 46 49 46 54 45 45 4E 20 41 52 45 20 52 |GH FIFTEEN ARE R| 000023F0: 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 45 44 20 42 59 20 54 48 |EPRESENTED BY TH| 00002400: 45 20 53 59 4D 42 4F 4C 53 20 C1 2D C6 2E 20 C1 |E SYMBOLS .-.. .| 00002410: 20 43 4F 4E 56 45 52 53 49 4F 4E 20 54 41 42 4C | CONVERSION TABL| 00002420: 45 20 49 53 20 47 49 56 45 4E 20 4F 4E 20 54 48 |E IS GIVEN ON TH| 00002430: 45 20 4E 45 58 54 20 54 57 4F 20 50 41 47 45 53 |E NEXT TWO PAGES| 00002440: 2E 0D 0D 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 F0 60 60 60 60 60 |..... .`````| 00002450: 60 60 60 60 F2 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 F2 60 60 |````.````````.``| 00002460: 60 60 60 EE 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 44 45 43 49 |```.. . DECI| 00002470: 4D 41 4C 20 DD 20 42 49 4E 41 52 59 20 DD 20 48 |MAL . BINARY . H| 00002480: 45 58 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 EB 60 60 60 60 60 |EX .. .`````| 00002490: 60 60 60 60 DB 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 DB 60 60 |````.````````.``| 000024A0: 60 60 60 F3 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 20 20 20 |```.. . | 000024B0: 30 20 20 20 DD 20 20 30 30 30 30 20 20 DD 20 20 |0 . 0000 . | 000024C0: 20 30 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 20 20 20 | 0 .. . | 000024D0: 31 20 20 20 DD 20 20 30 30 30 31 20 20 DD 20 20 |1 . 0001 . | 000024E0: 20 31 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 20 20 20 | 1 .. . | 000024F0: 32 20 20 20 DD 20 20 30 30 31 30 20 20 DD 20 20 |2 . 0010 . | 00002500: 20 32 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 20 20 20 | 2 .. . | 00002510: 33 20 20 20 DD 20 20 30 30 31 31 20 20 DD 20 20 |3 . 0011 . | 00002520: 20 33 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 20 20 20 | 3 .. . | 00002530: 34 20 20 20 DD 20 20 30 31 30 30 20 20 DD 20 20 |4 . 0100 . | 00002540: 20 34 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 20 20 20 | 4 .. . | 00002550: 35 20 20 20 DD 20 20 30 31 30 31 20 20 DD 20 20 |5 . 0101 . | 00002560: 20 35 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 20 20 20 | 5 .. . | 00002570: 36 20 20 20 DD 20 20 30 31 31 30 20 20 DD 20 20 |6 . 0110 . | 00002580: 20 36 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 20 20 20 | 6 .. . | 00002590: 37 20 20 20 DD 20 20 30 31 31 31 20 20 DD 20 20 |7 . 0111 . | 000025A0: 20 37 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 ED 60 60 60 60 60 | 7 .. .`````| 000025B0: 60 60 60 60 F1 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 F1 60 60 |````.````````.``| 000025C0: 60 60 60 FD 0D 0D 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 F0 60 60 |```..... .``| 000025D0: 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 F2 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 |```````.````````| 000025E0: F2 60 60 60 60 60 EE 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 44 |.`````.. . D| 000025F0: 45 43 49 4D 41 4C 20 DD 20 42 49 4E 41 52 59 20 |ECIMAL . BINARY | 00002600: DD 20 48 45 58 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 EB 60 60 |. HEX .. .``| 00002610: 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 DB 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 |```````.````````| 00002620: DB 60 60 60 60 60 F3 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 |.`````.. . | 00002630: 20 20 20 38 20 20 20 DD 20 20 31 30 30 30 20 20 | 8 . 1000 | 00002640: DD 20 20 20 38 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 |. 8 .. . | 00002650: 20 20 20 39 20 20 20 DD 20 20 31 30 30 31 20 20 | 9 . 1001 | 00002660: DD 20 20 20 39 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 |. 9 .. . | 00002670: 20 20 31 30 20 20 20 DD 20 20 31 30 31 30 20 20 | 10 . 1010 | 00002680: DD 20 20 20 C1 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 |. . .. . | 00002690: 20 20 31 31 20 20 20 DD 20 20 31 30 31 31 20 20 | 11 . 1011 | 000026A0: DD 20 20 20 C2 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 |. . .. . | 000026B0: 20 20 31 32 20 20 20 DD 20 20 31 31 30 30 20 20 | 12 . 1100 | 000026C0: DD 20 20 20 C3 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 |. . .. . | 000026D0: 20 20 31 33 20 20 20 DD 20 20 31 31 30 31 20 20 | 13 . 1101 | 000026E0: DD 20 20 20 C4 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 |. . .. . | 000026F0: 20 20 31 34 20 20 20 DD 20 20 31 31 31 30 20 20 | 14 . 1110 | 00002700: DD 20 20 20 C5 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 DD 20 20 |. . .. . | 00002710: 20 20 31 35 20 20 20 DD 20 20 31 31 31 31 20 20 | 15 . 1111 | 00002720: DD 20 20 20 C6 20 DD 0D 20 20 20 20 20 ED 60 60 |. . .. .``| 00002730: 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 F1 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 |```````.````````| 00002740: F1 60 60 60 60 60 FD 0D 0D 0D 0D 20 C8 45 58 41 |.`````..... .EXA| 00002750: 44 45 43 49 4D 41 4C 20 54 4F 20 C4 45 43 49 4D |DECIMAL TO .ECIM| 00002760: 41 4C 20 C3 4F 4E 56 45 52 53 49 4F 4E 0D 20 F7 |AL .ONVERSION. .| 00002770: F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 |................| 00002780: F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 |................| 00002790: 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 C1 20 46 4F 55 52 20 44 49 |.. . FOUR DI| 000027A0: 47 49 54 20 48 45 58 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 20 48 |GIT HEX NUMBER H| 000027B0: 41 53 20 57 45 49 47 48 54 53 20 4F 46 20 31 36 |AS WEIGHTS OF 16| 000027C0: 5E 33 2C 20 31 36 5E 32 2C 20 31 36 5E 31 2C 20 |^3, 16^2, 16^1, | 000027D0: 41 4E 44 20 31 36 5E 30 20 46 4F 52 20 45 41 43 |AND 16^0 FOR EAC| 000027E0: 48 20 44 49 47 49 54 2C 20 53 54 41 52 54 49 4E |H DIGIT, STARTIN| 000027F0: 47 20 46 52 4F 4D 20 54 48 45 20 4C 45 46 54 4D |G FROM THE LEFTM| 00002800: 4F 53 54 20 44 49 47 49 54 2E 20 20 D4 48 49 53 |OST DIGIT. .HIS| 00002810: 20 43 4F 52 52 45 53 50 4F 4E 44 53 20 54 4F 20 | CORRESPONDS TO | 00002820: 54 48 45 20 44 45 43 49 4D 41 4C 20 53 59 53 54 |THE DECIMAL SYST| 00002830: 45 4D 20 57 48 45 52 45 20 41 20 46 4F 55 52 20 |EM WHERE A FOUR | 00002840: 44 49 47 49 54 20 44 45 43 49 4D 41 4C 20 4E 55 |DIGIT DECIMAL NU| 00002850: 4D 42 45 52 20 48 41 53 20 57 45 49 47 48 54 53 |MBER HAS WEIGHTS| 00002860: 20 4F 46 20 31 30 5E 33 20 28 31 30 30 30 29 2C | OF 10^3 (1000),| 00002870: 20 31 30 5E 32 20 28 31 30 30 29 2C 20 31 30 5E | 10^2 (100), 10^| 00002880: 31 20 28 31 30 29 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 31 30 5E 30 |1 (10), AND 10^0| 00002890: 20 28 31 29 2E 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 D4 4F 20 43 | (1)... .O C| 000028A0: 4F 4E 56 45 52 54 20 41 20 46 4F 55 52 20 44 49 |ONVERT A FOUR DI| 000028B0: 47 49 54 20 48 45 58 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 20 54 |GIT HEX NUMBER T| 000028C0: 4F 20 44 45 43 49 4D 41 4C 2C 20 4D 55 4C 54 49 |O DECIMAL, MULTI| 000028D0: 50 4C 59 20 54 48 45 20 46 49 52 53 54 20 44 49 |PLY THE FIRST DI| 000028E0: 47 49 54 20 42 59 20 34 30 39 36 20 28 31 36 5E |GIT BY 4096 (16^| 000028F0: 33 29 2C 20 54 48 45 20 53 45 43 4F 4E 44 20 44 |3), THE SECOND D| 00002900: 49 47 49 54 20 42 59 20 32 35 36 20 28 31 36 5E |IGIT BY 256 (16^| 00002910: 32 29 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 54 48 45 20 54 48 49 52 |2), AND THE THIR| 00002920: 44 20 44 49 47 49 54 20 42 59 20 31 36 20 28 31 |D DIGIT BY 16 (1| 00002930: 36 5E 31 29 2E 20 20 D4 48 45 4E 20 41 44 44 20 |6^1). .HEN ADD | 00002940: 54 48 45 20 54 48 52 45 45 20 52 45 53 55 4C 54 |THE THREE RESULT| 00002950: 53 20 54 4F 20 54 48 45 20 46 4F 55 52 54 48 20 |S TO THE FOURTH | 00002960: 44 49 47 49 54 2E 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 0D 20 |DIGIT.......... | 00002970: 20 C8 45 58 41 44 45 43 49 4D 41 4C 20 54 4F 20 | .EXADECIMAL TO | 00002980: C2 49 4E 41 52 59 20 C3 4F 4E 56 45 52 53 49 4F |.INARY .ONVERSIO| 00002990: 4E 0D 20 20 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 |N. ............| 000029A0: F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 |................| 000029B0: F7 F7 F7 F7 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 D4 4F 20 43 4F |...... .O CO| 000029C0: 4E 56 45 52 54 20 48 45 58 20 54 4F 20 42 49 4E |NVERT HEX TO BIN| 000029D0: 41 52 59 2C 20 4A 55 53 54 20 52 45 4D 45 4D 42 |ARY, JUST REMEMB| 000029E0: 45 52 20 54 48 41 54 20 45 41 43 48 20 48 45 58 |ER THAT EACH HEX| 000029F0: 20 44 49 47 49 54 20 52 45 50 52 45 53 45 4E 54 | DIGIT REPRESENT| 00002A00: 53 20 46 4F 55 52 20 42 49 54 53 20 41 4E 44 20 |S FOUR BITS AND | 00002A10: 53 55 42 53 54 49 54 55 54 45 20 55 53 49 4E 47 |SUBSTITUTE USING| 00002A20: 20 41 20 43 4F 4E 56 45 52 53 49 4F 4E 20 54 41 | A CONVERSION TA| 00002A30: 42 4C 45 2E 20 20 C6 4F 52 20 45 58 41 4D 50 4C |BLE. .OR EXAMPL| 00002A40: 45 2C 20 54 4F 20 43 4F 4E 56 45 52 54 20 54 48 |E, TO CONVERT TH| 00002A50: 45 20 48 45 58 20 4E 55 4D 42 45 52 20 24 C6 C2 |E HEX NUMBER $..| 00002A60: 31 38 2C 20 57 45 20 45 4E 44 20 55 50 20 57 49 |18, WE END UP WI| 00002A70: 54 48 20 54 48 49 53 3A 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 |TH THIS:.. | 00002A80: 20 20 20 20 C6 20 20 20 20 C2 20 20 20 20 31 20 | . . 1 | 00002A90: 20 20 20 38 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 31 31 | 8.. 11| 00002AA0: 31 31 20 31 30 31 31 20 30 30 30 31 20 31 30 30 |11 1011 0001 100| 00002AB0: 30 0D 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 C4 45 43 49 4D |0... .ECIM| 00002AC0: 41 4C 20 54 4F 20 C8 45 58 41 44 45 43 49 4D 41 |AL TO .EXADECIMA| 00002AD0: 4C 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 |L. .......| 00002AE0: F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 F7 0D |................| 00002AF0: 0D 20 20 20 20 20 C3 4F 4E 56 45 52 54 49 4E 47 |. .ONVERTING| 00002B00: 20 44 45 43 49 4D 41 4C 20 54 4F 20 48 45 58 20 | DECIMAL TO HEX | 00002B10: 49 53 20 41 20 4C 49 54 54 4C 45 20 4D 4F 52 45 |IS A LITTLE MORE| 00002B20: 20 49 4E 56 4F 4C 56 45 44 2E 20 20 C6 49 52 53 | INVOLVED. .IRS| 00002B30: 54 2C 20 44 49 56 49 44 45 20 54 48 45 20 4E 55 |T, DIVIDE THE NU| 00002B40: 4D 42 45 52 20 42 59 20 34 30 39 36 2E 20 20 C9 |MBER BY 4096. .| 00002B50: 47 4E 4F 52 49 4E 47 20 41 4E 59 20 46 52 41 43 |GNORING ANY FRAC| 00002B60: 54 49 4F 4E 41 4C 20 56 41 4C 55 45 20 46 4F 52 |TIONAL VALUE FOR| 00002B70: 20 54 48 45 20 54 49 4D 45 20 42 45 49 4E 47 2C | THE TIME BEING,| 00002B80: 20 54 48 45 20 49 4E 54 45 47 45 52 20 56 41 4C | THE INTEGER VAL| 00002B90: 55 45 20 49 53 20 54 48 45 20 46 49 52 53 54 2C |UE IS THE FIRST,| 00002BA0: 20 4D 4F 53 54 20 53 49 47 4E 49 46 49 47 41 4E | MOST SIGNIFIGAN| 00002BB0: 54 20 48 45 58 20 44 49 47 49 54 2E 20 20 D7 52 |T HEX DIGIT. .R| 00002BC0: 49 54 45 20 54 48 49 53 20 44 4F 57 4E 2C 20 54 |ITE THIS DOWN, T| 00002BD0: 48 45 4E 20 4D 55 4C 54 49 50 4C 59 20 54 48 45 |HEN MULTIPLY THE| 00002BE0: 20 46 52 41 43 54 49 4F 4E 20 42 59 20 31 36 2E | FRACTION BY 16.| 00002BF0: 20 20 D4 48 49 53 20 47 49 56 45 53 20 55 53 20 | .HIS GIVES US | 00002C00: 54 48 45 20 53 45 43 4F 4E 44 20 4D 4F 53 54 20 |THE SECOND MOST | 00002C10: 53 49 47 4E 49 46 49 47 41 4E 54 20 48 45 58 20 |SIGNIFIGANT HEX | 00002C20: 44 49 47 49 54 2E 20 20 CD 55 4C 54 49 50 4C 59 |DIGIT. .ULTIPLY| 00002C30: 20 54 48 45 20 52 45 4D 41 49 4E 49 4E 47 20 46 | THE REMAINING F| 00002C40: 52 41 43 54 49 4F 4E 20 42 59 20 31 36 2E 20 20 |RACTION BY 16. | 00002C50: D4 48 49 53 20 47 49 56 45 53 20 55 53 20 54 48 |.HIS GIVES US TH| 00002C60: 45 20 54 48 49 52 44 20 44 49 47 49 54 2E 20 20 |E THIRD DIGIT. | 00002C70: CD 55 4C 54 49 50 4C 59 20 54 48 45 20 52 45 4D |.ULTIPLY THE REM| 00002C80: 41 49 4E 49 4E 47 20 46 52 41 43 54 49 4F 4E 20 |AINING FRACTION | 00002C90: 42 59 20 31 36 2E 20 20 D4 48 49 53 20 47 49 56 |BY 16. .HIS GIV| 00002CA0: 45 53 20 54 48 45 20 46 4F 55 52 54 48 20 41 4E |ES THE FOURTH AN| 00002CB0: 44 20 4C 41 53 54 20 48 45 58 20 44 49 47 49 54 |D LAST HEX DIGIT| 00002CC0: 2E 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 C9 4E 20 4D 4F 4E 54 48 |... .N MONTH| 00002CD0: 53 20 54 4F 20 43 4F 4D 45 2C 20 57 45 20 57 49 |S TO COME, WE WI| 00002CE0: 4C 4C 20 45 58 50 4C 41 49 4E 20 4D 41 43 48 49 |LL EXPLAIN MACHI| 00002CF0: 4E 45 2D 4C 41 4E 47 55 41 47 45 20 4D 4F 4E 49 |NE-LANGUAGE MONI| 00002D00: 54 4F 52 53 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 41 53 53 45 4D 42 |TORS, AND ASSEMB| 00002D10: 4C 45 52 53 2E 20 20 C9 46 20 59 4F 55 20 44 4F |LERS. .F YOU DO| 00002D20: 4E 27 54 20 41 4C 52 45 41 44 59 20 48 41 56 45 |N'T ALREADY HAVE| 00002D30: 20 41 4E 20 41 53 53 45 4D 42 4C 45 52 20 57 45 | AN ASSEMBLER WE| 00002D40: 20 52 45 43 4F 4D 4D 45 4E 44 20 59 4F 55 20 50 | RECOMMEND YOU P| 00002D50: 55 52 43 48 41 53 45 20 54 48 45 20 CD C1 C5 20 |URCHASE THE ... | 00002D60: 41 53 53 45 4D 42 4C 45 52 2E 20 20 C9 54 20 49 |ASSEMBLER. .T I| 00002D70: 53 20 41 4E 20 45 58 43 45 4C 4C 45 4E 54 20 41 |S AN EXCELLENT A| 00002D80: 53 53 45 4D 42 4C 45 52 2C 20 57 49 44 45 4C 59 |SSEMBLER, WIDELY| 00002D90: 20 41 56 41 49 4C 41 42 4C 45 2C 20 41 4E 44 20 | AVAILABLE, AND | 00002DA0: 49 4E 45 58 50 45 4E 53 49 56 45 2E 20 20 D7 45 |INEXPENSIVE. .E| 00002DB0: 20 57 49 4C 4C 20 42 45 20 55 53 49 4E 47 20 49 | WILL BE USING I| 00002DC0: 54 20 45 58 43 4C 55 53 49 56 45 4C 59 20 49 4E |T EXCLUSIVELY IN| 00002DD0: 20 54 48 49 53 20 43 4F 4C 55 4D 4E 2E 20 20 C6 | THIS COLUMN. .| 00002DE0: 4F 52 20 41 20 4D 4F 4E 49 54 4F 52 2C 20 57 45 |OR A MONITOR, WE| 00002DF0: 20 57 4F 55 4C 44 20 52 45 43 4F 4D 4D 45 4E 44 | WOULD RECOMMEND| 00002E00: 20 45 49 54 48 45 52 20 D3 55 50 45 52 4D 4F 4E | EITHER .UPERMON| 00002E10: 2D 36 34 20 4F 52 20 CD 49 43 52 4F 4D 4F 4E 2E |-64 OR .ICROMON.| 00002E20: 0D 0D 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 C8 41 50 50 |.. .APP| 00002E30: 59 20 43 4F 4D 50 55 54 49 4E 47 2E 0D |Y COMPUTING.. |
.... PROGRAMMING. WITH
MACHINE LANGUAGE..... (C)1987 BY ROBER
T ROCKEFELLER. AND.
UPTIME MAGAZINE. ALL RIGHTS R
ESERVED.. PUBLISHED BY.
VIKING TECHNOLOGIES, INC.. BEGINNING
THIS MONTH, A NEW COLUMN DEVOTED TO MAC
HINE-LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING ON THE C64 MAK
ES ITS DEBUT IN UPTIME. THE TOPICS AND
PACE OF THE COLUMN WILL BE DETERMINED BY
YOU, OUR READERS. IF YOU WANT TO SEE A
CERTAIN SUBJECT COVERED, JUST DROP US A
LINE AND WE'LL DO OUR BEST TO INCLUDE I
T IN FUTURE COLUMNS... WE PLAN TO BE
GIN WITH INTRODUCTORY TOPICS SUCH AS BAS
IC COMPUTER TERMINOLOGY, THE 6502 INSTRU
CTION SET, ADDRESSING MODES, THE PROCESS
OR'S REGISTERS, AND THE BASIC ARCHITECTU
RE OF THE C64. FROM THERE WE WILL PROGR
ESS TO MORE ADVANCED SUBJECTS. IN THIS
WAY BEGINNERS CAN BE REFERRED TO EARLIER
ARTICLES, AND AS BEGINNERS BECOME MORE
EXPERT, THE COLUMN WILL GROW WITH THEM..
... TOPICS FOR FUTURE COLUMNS WILL I
NCLUDE:. 1) HOW TO USE THE C64'S BASIC.
AND KERNAL ROMS (READ ONLY. MEMORI
ES).. 2) HOW TO MODIFY BASIC.. 3) HOW TO
WRITE SIMPLE DATABASES,. WORD PROCES
SORS, AND SPREAD-. SHEETS.. 4) HOW TO
PROGRAM C64 GRAPHICS,. CHARACTER SET
S, AND THE SOUND. CHIP..... COM
PUTER ARCHITECTURE. ..............
......... WEBSTER'S DICTIONARY DEFIN
ES ARCHITECTURE AS:. (1) THE ART OR SCI
ENCE OF. PLANNING AND BUILDING.
STRUCTURES.. (2) METHOD OR STYLE OF B
UILDING... BOTH OF THESE DEFINITIONS
CAN BE APPLIED TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF C
OMPUTERS AS WELL, WHICH IS WHY COMPUTER
SCIENTISTS HAVE COINED THE TERM 'COMPUTE
R ARCHITECTURE'... WHEN DISCUSSING T
HE ARCHITECTURE OF A BUILDING, WE MIGHT
MENTION SUCH THINGS AS THE BUILDING'S SI
ZE AND ITS FLOOR PLAN. AS RELATED TO A
COMPUTER, SIZE WOULD REFER TO THE AVAILA
BLE MEMORY OF THE MACHINE. INSTEAD OF D
OORS, HALLWAYS, AND OFFICES, THE FLOOR P
LAN WOULD REFER TO THE PLACEMENT OF INPU
T/OUTPUT (I/O) PORTS, HOW MEMORY IS ORGA
NIZED (MEMORY MANAGEMENT), AND THE MICRO
PROCESSOR.... THE MICROPROCESSOR
. .................... PROBA
BLY THE SINGLE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN
THE ARCHITECTURE OF A COMPUTER IS THE TY
PE OF MICROPROCESSOR OR CPU (CENTRAL PRO
CESSING UNIT) THE COMPUTER HAS. THE CPU
IS THE 'BRAIN' INSIDE THE COMPUTER THAT
ACTUALLY EXECUTES MACHINE-LANGUAGE, OR
ML, INSTRUCTIONS... IN FACT, ALL COM
PUTER PROGRAMS ULTIMATELY ARE MERELY SEQ
UENCES OF ML INSTRUCTIONS WHICH THE CPU
EXECUTES. EVEN HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES (SO
NAMED BECAUSE THEY RESEMBLE ENGLISH) LI
KE BASIC ARE IMPLEMENTED THIS WAY. FOR
EXAMPLE, IT REQUIRES MANY HUNDREDS OF ML
INSTRUCTIONS TO PERFORM ONE BASIC COMMA
ND SUCH AS THE PRINT STATEMENT... TH
E C64 USES THE WORKHORSE 6510 CPU, WHICH
IS AN ENHANCED VERSION OF THE WIDELY US
ED 6502 CPU. THE 6510 CPU WILL BE MORE
FULLY DISCUSSED IN FUTURE COLUMNS.......
..... COMPUTER MEMORY.
................. COMPUTER MEMORY I
S DIVIDED INTO MANY TINY, EASILY MANAGED
UNITS, OR CELLS, CALLED 'BYTES'. MEMOR
Y IS PHYSICALLY CONTAINED IN SPECIALIZED
COMPUTER CHIPS KNOWN AS RAM (RANDOM ACC
ESS MEMORY) OR ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY) CH
IPS. THESE CHIPS ARE WIRED INTO THE COMP
UTER IN SUCH A WAY THAT EACH BYTE HAS IT
S OWN UNIQUE LOCATION, OR 'ADDRESS'...
THE 6510 CPU CAN ACCESS UP TO 65,536
BYTES, NUMBERED FROM ADDRESS 0 UP THROUG
H ADDRESS 65535. YOU ARE PROBABLY FAMIL
IAR WITH THE POKE COMMAND IN BASIC WHICH
REQUIRES AN ADDRESS AND A VALUE AS PARA
METERS. WELL, POKE PUTS, OR "POKES", TH
E VALUE INTO THE BYTE LOCATED AT THE ADD
RESS YOU'VE SPECIFIED... YOU MAY ALS
O HAVE READ OR HEARD OF THE TERM 'KILOBY
TE' OR, ABBREVIATED, "K". KILO IS A PRE
FIX WHICH MEANS ONE THOUSAND. FOR EXAMP
LE, ONE KILOMETER SIGNIFIES A DISTANCE O
F 1000 METERS. A KILOBYTE, HOWEVER, EQU
ALS 1024 BYTES, NOT 1000. THIS IS BECAU
SE COMPUTERS COUNT IN BASE 2 (THE BINARY
SYSTEM) AND MEMORY IS ORGANIZED INTO UN
ITS BASED ON THE POWERS OF TWO. A 'PAGE
' OF COMPUTER MEMORY EQUALS 256 BYTES OR
2 TO THE POWER OF 8. A KILOBYTE EQUALS
4 PAGES, OR 2 TO THE POWER OF 10...
THE BINARY SYSTEM. ........
........... A BYTE MAY CONTAIN A VAL
UE IN THE RANGE OF 0 TO 255. WHY THIS S
TRANGE UPPER LIMIT ON THE VALUE OF A BYT
E? WHY NOT A RANGE OF 0 TO 100, OR EVEN
0 TO 1000? THE REASON IS BECAUSE A BYT
E CONSISTS OF 8 SMALLER UNITS CALLED 'BI
TS' (BINARY DIGIT)... A BIT CAN TAKE
ONLY ONE OF TWO VALUES, EITHER 0 OR 1.
INSIDE THE COMPUTER, A BIT IS ACTUALLY
A VOLTAGE, INTERPRETED AS OFF OR ZERO FO
R A VALUE OF 0 TO 1.5 VOLTS, AND AS ON O
R ONE FOR A VALUE OF 3.5 TO 5 VOLTS. TH
E RANGE LIMITATION FOR THE VALUE OF A BY
TE OCCURS BECAUSE 8 BITS HAS THE CAPACIT
Y FOR ONLY 256 UNIQUE PERMUTATIONS OF TH
E ARRANGEMENT OF ON AND OFF BITS IN THE
BYTE. THIS ARRANGEMENT RUNS FROM ALL 8
BITS OFF, WHICH IS REGARDED AS ZERO, TO
ALL 8 BITS ON, WHICH IS 255... THE I
NDIVIDUAL BITS ARE NUMBERED FROM 7 TO 0
IN DESCENDING ORDER, WITH BIT 7 BEING TH
E 'HIGH' BIT, AND BIT 0 BEING THE 'LOW'
BIT... .`.`.`.`.`.`.`.`.. HIG
H .7.6.5.4.3.2.1.0. LOW. .`.`.`.
`.`.`.`.`...NUMBERS LARGER THAN 1 ARE PO
SSIBLE BY GIVING EACH BIT A 'WEIGHT' ACC
ORDING TO THE BASE TWO OR BINARY NUMBER
SYSTEM... IN BASE 2 MATH, BIT 0, THE
RIGHTMOST BIT, REPRESENTS 2^0, READ AS
TWO TO THE POWER OF ZERO. THE ^ CHARACT
ER IS USED TO INDICATE EXPONENTIATION.
BIT 1 REPRESENTS 2^1. BIT 2 REPRESENTS
2^2, AND SO ON. THE TABLE ON THE NEXT P
AGE SHOWS THE CONNECTION BETWEEN BIT POS
ITION AND VALUE.........```.``.``.``.`.`
.`.`. BIT NUMBER &.. 7. 6. 5. 4.3.2.1.0
. POWER OF TWO..```.``.``.``.`.`.`.`...1
28.64.32.16.8.4.2.1. WEIGHT OR..```.``.`
`.``.`.`.`.`. VALUE..FOR EXAMPLE, THE DE
CIMAL VALUE OF:.. 01000000 = 64. 000
00000 = 0. 10100110 = 128+32+4+2 = 166
. 00001111 = 8+4+2+1 = 15. 11111110
= 128+64+32+16+8+4+2.
= 254.. IF A SINGLE BYTE CAN
ONLY CONTAIN A VALUE OF 0 TO 255, THEN
HOW ARE LARGER NUMBERS REPRESENTED? BY
USING MORE THAN ONE BYTE TO REPRESENT TH
E NUMBER. THE SECOND BYTE REPRESENTS BI
TS EIGHT TO FIFTEEN. BIT 8 HAS A WEIGHT
OF 2 TO THE POWER OF 8, BIT 9 HAS A VAL
UE OF 2 TO THE POWER OF 9, AND SO ON. T
HE TABLE ON THE NEXT PAGE SHOWS THE CONN
ECTION BETWEEN BIT POSITION AND VALUE...
....````````````.```````.````````````...
BIT NUMBER . VALUE . POWER OF 2 ...````
````````.```````.````````````... 8
. 256 . 8 ... 9
. 512 . 9 ... 10 . 1
024 . 10 ... 11 . 2048
. 11 ... 12 . 4096 .
12 ... 13 . 8192 . 13
... 14 . 16384 . 14
... 15 . 32768 . 15 ...
````````````.```````.````````````.....
IT'S POSSIBLE TO REPRESENT PRACTICALL
Y ANY SIZE NUMBER IN THIS WAY, BY STRING
ING BYTES TOGETHER. FOR EXAMPLE, IF A T
HIRD BYTE WAS REQUIRED IT WOULD REPRESEN
T BITS 16 TO 23, WITH THE APPROPRIATE WE
IGHTS... WHEN READING GROUPS OF BYTE
S AS LARGE NUMBERS, CERTAIN CONVENTIONS
ARE DESIGNED AND IMPLEMENTED AS STANDARD
S OF OPERATION. THE NORMAL 6510 CONVENT
ION FOR READING AND WRITING GROUPS OF BY
TES IN MEMORY IS THAT THE LOW-ORDER BYTE
IS STORED FIRST, IN LOW MEMORY, FOLLOWE
D BY ANY HIGHER-ORDERED BYTES WHICH ARE
STORED CONSECUTIVELY IN THE NEXT HIGHER
ADDRESSES. THE REASONS WILL BECOME MORE
OBVIOUS AS WE BEGIN STUDYING THE ADDRES
SING MODES OF THE 6510 CPU... HEX
ADECIMAL NOTATION. ..............
........ ONE OF THE DIFFICULTIES WIT
H BINARY NUMBERS IS THE DIFFICULTY HUMAN
S HAVE WITH COMPREHENDING THEM. FOR EXA
MPLE, HERE ARE TWO LISTS OF BINARY NUMBE
RS. TRY TO FIND WHERE THEY DIFFER:..
11011100 11011100. 111011
10 11101110. 11110111 11110111
. 10101101 10110101. 11
110110 11110110... LISTING THE NUMB
ERS IN BASE 10 (DECIMAL REPRESENTATION)
MAKES THE JOB MUCH EASIER...
220 220. 238 238.
247 247. 173 181.
246 246...... HOWEVER
, BASE 10 IS OFTEN NOT THE OPTIMUM NUMBE
R BASE TO USE WHEN WORKING WITH COMPUTER
S. THE REASON IS THAT IT IS FREQUENTLY
NECESSARY TO PERFORM OPERATIONS ON INDIV
IDUAL BITS WITHIN A BYTE, ESPECIALLY WHE
N PROGRAMMING AT THE ML LEVEL. FOR EXAM
PLE, CAN YOU TELL IF BIT 3 IS SET IN A B
YTE OF VALUE 151? (IT ISN'T). IT THERE
FORE BECOMES NECESSARY TO CONVERT TO BAS
E 2 BEFORE ONE CAN KNOW..... THE BES
T OF BOTH WORLDS IS THE HEXADECIMAL, OR
BASE 16, REPRESENTATION OF BYTES. HEXAD
ECIMAL (HEX FOR SHORT) NOTATION READILY
LENDS ITSELF TO BINARY CONVERSION AND IS
ALSO MUCH EASIER FOR HUMANS TO COMPREHE
ND THAN BINARY.... A CONVENTION IN 6
510 ML NOTATION IS TO PREFACE EACH HEX N
UMBER WITH THE $ CHARACTER. THIS IS SO H
EX NUMBERS CAN BE EASILY DISTINGUISHED F
ROM DECIMAL NUMBERS. IN HEX, OUR LISTS A
RE:.. $DC $DC.
$EE $EE. $F7 $F7.
$AD $B5. $F6 $F6.
.. ONE HEXADECIMAL DIGIT REPRESENTS
4 BITS (CALLED A NIBBLE), SO ONLY TWO HE
X DIGITS REPRESENT ANY BYTE (VALUE 0-255
). FOUR HEX DIGITS ARE USED TO REPRESEN
T AN ADDRESS (VALUE 0-65535). THE MAXIM
UM VALUE WHICH FOUR BITS CAN REPRESENT I
S 15 (8+4+2+1). NUMBERS ZERO THROUGH NI
NE ARE REPRESENTED BY THE NUMERIC SYMBOL
S 0-9. VALUES TEN THROUGH FIFTEEN ARE R
EPRESENTED BY THE SYMBOLS A-F. A CONVERS
ION TABLE IS GIVEN ON THE NEXT TWO PAGES
..... .`````````.````````.`````..
. DECIMAL . BINARY . HEX .. .`````
````.````````.`````.. . 0 . 0
000 . 0 .. . 1 . 0001 .
1 .. . 2 . 0010 . 2 ..
. 3 . 0011 . 3 .. .
4 . 0100 . 4 .. . 5 . 0
101 . 5 .. . 6 . 0110 .
6 .. . 7 . 0111 . 7 ..
.`````````.````````.`````..... .``
```````.````````.`````.. . DECIMAL .
BINARY . HEX .. .`````````.````````
.`````.. . 8 . 1000 . 8 ..
. 9 . 1001 . 9 .. .
10 . 1010 . A .. . 11 .
1011 . B .. . 12 . 1100
. C .. . 13 . 1101 . D ..
. 14 . 1110 . E .. .
15 . 1111 . F .. .`````````.
````````.`````..... HEXADECIMAL TO DECIM
AL CONVERSION. .........................
.......... A FOUR DIGIT HEX NUMBER H
AS WEIGHTS OF 16^3, 16^2, 16^1, AND 16^0
FOR EACH DIGIT, STARTING FROM THE LEFTM
OST DIGIT. THIS CORRESPONDS TO THE DECI
MAL SYSTEM WHERE A FOUR DIGIT DECIMAL NU
MBER HAS WEIGHTS OF 10^3 (1000), 10^2 (1
00), 10^1 (10), AND 10^0 (1)... TO C
ONVERT A FOUR DIGIT HEX NUMBER TO DECIMA
L, MULTIPLY THE FIRST DIGIT BY 4096 (16^
3), THE SECOND DIGIT BY 256 (16^2), AND
THE THIRD DIGIT BY 16 (16^1). THEN ADD
THE THREE RESULTS TO THE FOURTH DIGIT...
....... HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSIO
N. ..................................
TO CONVERT HEX TO BINARY, JUST REMEMB
ER THAT EACH HEX DIGIT REPRESENTS FOUR B
ITS AND SUBSTITUTE USING A CONVERSION TA
BLE. FOR EXAMPLE, TO CONVERT THE HEX NU
MBER $FB18, WE END UP WITH THIS:..
F B 1 8.. 1111 1011
0001 1000... DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMA
L. ........................ CO
NVERTING DECIMAL TO HEX IS A LITTLE MORE
INVOLVED. FIRST, DIVIDE THE NUMBER BY
4096. IGNORING ANY FRACTIONAL VALUE FOR
THE TIME BEING, THE INTEGER VALUE IS TH
E FIRST, MOST SIGNIFIGANT HEX DIGIT. WR
ITE THIS DOWN, THEN MULTIPLY THE FRACTIO
N BY 16. THIS GIVES US THE SECOND MOST
SIGNIFIGANT HEX DIGIT. MULTIPLY THE REM
AINING FRACTION BY 16. THIS GIVES US TH
E THIRD DIGIT. MULTIPLY THE REMAINING F
RACTION BY 16. THIS GIVES THE FOURTH AN
D LAST HEX DIGIT... IN MONTHS TO COM
E, WE WILL EXPLAIN MACHINE-LANGUAGE MONI
TORS, AND ASSEMBLERS. IF YOU DON'T ALRE
ADY HAVE AN ASSEMBLER WE RECOMMEND YOU P
URCHASE THE MAE ASSEMBLER. IT IS AN EXC
ELLENT ASSEMBLER, WIDELY AVAILABLE, AND
INEXPENSIVE. WE WILL BE USING IT EXCLUS
IVELY IN THIS COLUMN. FOR A MONITOR, WE
WOULD RECOMMEND EITHER SUPERMON-64 OR M
ICROMON... HAPPY COMPUTING..
> CLICK IMAGE PREVIEW FOR FULL MODAL